In the Library of Congress, general education topics are listed under the classification of “L” and several sub-classifications fall under this. When searching for self-directed learning, the following sub-classifications were most useful:

LB CLASSIFICATION:

5-3640 Theory and Practice of Education

51-885 Systems of Individual Educators and Writers

2165-2278 Teacher Training in Universities and Colleges

LC CLASSIFICATION:

25-33 Self-Education, Self-Culture

37-44.3 Home Education

45-45.8 Nonformal Education

1001-1099.5 Types of Education (humanistic, vocational, and professional)

1022-1022.25 Computer-Assisted Education

5201-6660.4 Education Extension, Adult Education, Continuing Education

5800-5808 Distance Education

5900-6101 Correspondence Schools

6201-6401 University Extension

When using the services provided by First Search, a search for “self-directed learning” produced substantial results. However, some of the other major descriptors suggested by First Search that may be useful include:

· Independent Study

· Learning Processes

· Educational Strategies

· Critical Thinking

· Adult Learning

INDEXES AND ABSTRACTING SERVICES

FirstSearch Service

The FirstSearch indexing and abstracting services allows users to search thousands of magazines, journals, encyclopedias, business directories and financial reports. FirstSearch service provides access to the following services:

ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center)

When searching for education-related topics, ERIC is most often an excellent starting point. The ERIC database, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, is a bibliographic database that contains education-related documents and journal articles. Abstracts are usually available at the site, and some full-text articles can be viewed on-line free of charge. Other documents can be ordered through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service. In my experience, many ERIC documents are available through other sites on the web as well. The ERIC databases can also be searched from several different sites including: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests or http://ericir.syr.edu/ERIC/ or http://www.edrs.com or http://ericae.net/aesearch.htm.

ArticleFirst provides access to journal article citations. “This service is ideal for searching a specific author or topic and for receiving relevant articles from a comprehensive database of titles” (FirstSearch Service). Citations often list brief abstracts and detailed document-retrieval information. The best results in terms of both quantity and quality came by using the term “self-directed learning” or by searching the names of popular educators in the field (i.e., Malcolm Knowles, Alan Tough, Huey Long, etc.). The drawback of this service is that it only lists citations as opposed to full-text articles.

ContentsFirst is a database that contains complete table-of-contents pages from 13,000 journals. This database might be very useful for those with access to a complete research library. Since only the table-of-contents for journals are listed, users must then meet the challenge of finding the actual journals in order to read the articles of interest.

NetFirst can be used to find URL addresses of Internet-accessible information resources, including World Wide Web pages, electronic discussion groups, video catalogs, FTP sites, newsletters, electronic journals, and gophers. More and more information is becoming available over the Internet, so this service will grow increasingly useful. Searches using the terms self-directed learning were quite unsuccessful, but “adult learning”, “adult education”, “lifelong learning”, and “independent study” provided more useful results.

Infotrac

Infotrac is another excellent resource for finding information on self-directed learning. This service also offers access to several different databases including:

The Books In Print database is (according to the Dialog Blue Sheet) “the most comprehensive source of information on books published in the U.S.” The records in this database provide information about books currently in print as well as titles that will be published within six months. The database also provides information on books that are out-of-print or out-of-stock. Reviews are available, as is information to allow quick and easy access to publisher contact and book ordering information. The best search options are by author using well-known authors in education and self-directed learning (i.e., Alan Tough, Malcolm Knowles, Huey Long, etc.) or by subject guide using the search term “self-directed learning.” Both provide excellent results.

The General Reference Center (Magazine Index) is a general interest database that contains indexes, abstracts, and full-text records. It provides articles from more than 400 popular magazines on such subjects as consumer behavior, media trends, popular culture, political opinion, leisure activities, and contemporary lifestyles. This database is most useful because it provides on-line access to full-text articles. Further, it has an excellent search tool so that users can limit and direct their searches to specific information. A keyword search for “self-directed learning” produced the best results with some full-text articles and some extended citations or abstracts. Using specific key terms to be included in articles such as “adults” or “lifelong learning” could also narrow the search.

PRINT RESOURCES

A substantial number of books and articles have been written about various aspects of self-directed learning. This pathfinder lists those that were most outstanding from my research on self-directed learning. The majority of these resources are written or compiled by educators who are considered experts in the field of adult education and self-directed learning. Others were chosen based on the unique views taken by the author(s) or by the key aspects examined in the article.

BOOKS

Areglado, Ronald J. (1996). Learning for Life: Creating Classrooms for Self-Directed Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

“This book explores concepts and methods of self-directed learning, documenting and illustrating the SDL methodology with practical examples” (ERIC, ED401253). The eight chapters included in this book define and compare self-directed learning with traditional learning methods; examine student perceptions of self-directed learning; describe a self-directed learning environment; and explore the teacher’s role in self-directed learning. A glossary, hands-on exercises, and references are included in the book as well.

Brockett, R. G. and Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-Direction in Adult Learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice. London: Routledge.

The aim of this book is to provide the reader, whether academic or professional, with a comprehensive synthesis of developments, issues, and practices related to self-directed learning. It presents strategies for facilitating self-directed learning as an instructional method and analyzes current research trends on the topic. The book includes a conceptual framework for understanding self-direction and chapters on major issues for practice, institutional perspectives, international views, fostering opportunities for self-direction in adult learning, and ethical concerns.

Brookfield, S. (Ed.). (1985). Self-Directed Learning: From theory to practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brookfield provides readers with an excellent tool for understanding the real-life applications and strategies of self-directed learning. He uses a number of case studies to examine how self-directed learning can be encouraged in different settings.

Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for Lifelong Learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Much research exists on the topic of self-directed learning. In this 1991 book, Candy provides a comprehensive survey of the existing literature of self-direction in adult education. Part one deals with the scope and meaning of self-directed learning; part two describes four dimensions of self-direction (personal autonomy, self-management, the independent pursuit of learning, learner control); part three examines new theoretical insights on self-directed learning; part four discusses the promotion of self-directed learning; and part five is concerned with realizing the potential of self-direction.

Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Adults as Learners has become established as a modern classic in the field of adult education. It is important to the field of self-directed learning because it gives valuable insights into the details of adult learners who are the primary participants in self-directed learning. This book covers the “who, what, when, where, why, and how” of adult learning. It contains chapters on the growth of the learning society; issues in recruiting adult learners; motivations for learning; implications for increasing participation; patterns of adult learning and development; how adults learn and want to learn; why adult chose self-directed learning activities; and how educators can facilitate adult learning.

Houle, C. O. (1961). The Inquiring Mind. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.

Cyril O. Houle is considered one of the great contributors to the field of adult education. This book was one of the first substantial efforts to build an understanding of adult education through a study of the individual rather than the institution. According to Dr. Huey B. Long (who wrote the foreword to the 1988 edition of the book) the “study of self-direction in adult learning was stimulated by Houle’s contribution as it provided an important foundation for … other aspects of adult self-direction in learning.”

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-Directed Learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.

Knowles is considered one of the primary contributors to the field of adult education and self-directed learning. This book contains sections on the learner, the teacher and learning resources associated with self-directed learning. It acts as an objective-oriented guide for those interested in participating in or planning self-directed programs. Knowles presents reasons for participation in self-directed learning as well as a five-step model for educators and learners.

Knowles, M., Holton, E. and Swanson, R. (1998) The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.

The authors of this book examine the key principles of adult learning as well as advances in the practice of adult education. Among the topics discussed in the book are theories of learning, theories of teaching, new perspectives on adult learning such as self-directed learning, teachers acting as facilitators to learning; and components of successful learning environments for adults (including self-directed learning environments). The book contains extensive tables and figures to help illustrate the concepts presented.

Long, H. B. and associates. (1992). Self-Directed learning: Application and Research. Norman, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education of the University of Oklahoma.

Long and associates have compiled several papers presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Adult Self-Directed Learning. “These chapters were selected from all submissions to provide as complete a picture as possible of the current efforts in self-directed learning application and research” (Long, 1992). Each article provides valuable insights about the topic through research, literature reviews, and detailed tables and figures about self-directed learning. Some chapters include information on justifications for studying self-directed learning, analysis of Guglielmino’s self-directed learning readiness scale, evaluation of self-directed learning programs, preparation of the self-directed learner, and individualization of the self-directed learning process.

Long, H. B. (1994). Self-directed Learning Seminar: An Anthology of Presentations at the International Self-directed Learning Symposium. Norman, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education of the University of Oklahoma.

This book is a collection of 16 chapters selected from seven different books on self-directed learning compiled by Huey B. Long, an expert educator in the field of self-directed learning. Each of the chapters was presented at one of the annual meeting of the International Self-Directed Learning Symposium since 1985. The collection addresses such questions as: What is the definition of self-directed learning? What causes one person to be more self-directed than another? How does self-directed learning fit into the workplace? What theories or issues exist concerning self-directed learning?

Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam and Caffarella provide a comprehensive look at much of the significant research and theory in the field of adult learning, including the context in which it takes place, who the participants are, what these participants learn and why, the nature of the learning process itself, and the development of adult learning theories. Significant attention is given to the topic of self-directed learning.

Percy, K., Burton, D. and Withmall, A. (1994). Self-Directed Learning among Adults: The Challenge for Continuing Educators. Lancaster, England: The Association for Lifelong Learning, Continuing Education Department, Lancaster University.

Though the main focus of this book is to stimulate research on self-directed learning in England, it also provides a detailed profile of Stephen Brookfield who is considered one of the main educators on the topic of self-direction. The book also provides an overview of Allen Tough’s work in the field of self-directed learning. Since Brookfield and Tough are both major contributors to this field, this book is a valuable (and short – 44 pages) read.

Piskurich, G. M. (1993). Self-Directed Learning: A Practical Guide to Design, Development & Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Self-directed learning has practical advantages for adult learners and educators. Piskurich points out how self-directed learning can provide both a cost-effective and time-effective alternative to traditional instructional designs. This book provides experienced practitioners with a systematic method for developing self-directed learning packages applicable in any setting, from basic skills training to education of advanced degree candidates in traditional academic environments.

Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.

Rogers advocates an unstructured method of teaching where the teacher’s role is that of a facilitator and the student is allowed to pursue his or her own learning activities – much like what happens during self-directed learning. He provides some key information on this method of teaching and learning.

Tennant, M. and Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and Change in the Adult Years: A Developmental Perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

“This book discusses the psychological literature on adult development and its implications for adult education” (Duke, 1996). Specifically, it examines ways to promote self-direction in adult learning. Though it is written more like a textbook, the ideas presented are very clear and easy to follow. Some works of the major education theorists such as Dewey, Maslow, Freire, and Mezirow are presented as well as case studies showing the effectiveness of self-directed learning for adults.

Tough, A. (1979). The Adult’s Learning Projects: A Fresh Approach to Theory and Practice in Adult Learning. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Self-directed learning does not necessarily take place within a classroom setting. In this book, Tough explains how adults deliberately engage in self-directed learning projects throughout their lives. Tough provides guidance on how this type of “natural” or informal learning experience can be adapted to formal learning situations.

ARTICLES

Brockett, R. (1994). Resistance to Self-direction in adult learning: Myths and misunderstandings. New directions for adult and continuing education, 64, 5-12.

Educators and learners often resist the introduction and use of self-directed learning because of misunderstandings about its practice or about its underlying philosophy. In this article, Brockett examines 10 common myths about self-direction in adult learning, and he places “specific emphasis on how each can contribute to increased resistance to self-direction” (p. 6).

Brookfield, S. (1994). Adult learning: An overview. International Encyclopedia of Education [On-line]. Available: http://nlu.nl.edu/ace/Resources/Documents/AdultLearning.html

Brookfield addresses four major research areas in adult learning, including self-directed learning, critical reflection, experiential learning, and learning to learn. He discusses how adult learning is different than learning in childhood or adolescence, and he explores some of the emergent trends in the study of adult learning.

Brookfield, S. (1993). Self-directed learning, political clarity and the critical practice of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 43, [On-line]. Available: http://nlu.nl.edu/ace/Resources/Documents/PoliticalClarity.html

Brookfield argues that “the concept of self-directed learning, if interpreted politically, could play an important role (along with critical theory, critical pedagogy and other work on transformative and emancipatory education) in providing a rationale for a critical practice of adult education.” Given the popularity of the concept of self-directed learning in contemporary adult education, it is important to consider political and practical issues associated with the concept.

Fischer, T. D. (1999). Self-directedness in adult vocational education students: Its role in learning and implications for instruction. Journal of Technology Education, 11, [On-line]. Available: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JVTE/v12n1/fisher.html

This report is intended to enlighten the educator of adults about some of the essential elements of self-directed learning and more clearly define its relevance to adult learning and instruction. With this article, Thomas Fischer hopes to raise the reader's level of awareness of self-directed learning, stimulate teaching professionals to investigate further the questions that are raised, to find solutions to possible problems and challenges encountered, and to more fully utilize self-directed learning in the adult classroom. Further, this article points out a potential ethical problem that could arise and identifies six issues that instructors and institutions should address if the needs of adult students are to be met. Lastly, it suggests how "Structured Flexibility" can create a mutually conducive learning environment that provides for student growth as well as instructor proficiency and professionalism.

Grow, G. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education Quarterly, 41, 125-149. [On-line]. Available: http://www.famu.edu/sjmga/ggrow.

Gerald Grow is professor of magazine journalism at Florida A&M University. He graduated from Harvard in 1964 and received a Ph.D. in English from Yale in 1968. This website presents a paper written by Grow and presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Adult Self-Directed Learning in Norman, Oklahoma, February, 1990. The paper describes a model designed by Grow called the Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) Model, which proposes that learners advance through stages of increasing self-direction and that teachers can help or hinder that development. Good teaching matches the learner's stage of self-direction and helps the learner advance toward greater self-direction. Several pedagogical difficulties are explained as mismatches between teacher style and learner stage, especially the mismatch between a student needing direction and a non-directive teacher. The website divides the paper into very manageable sections and contains a series of downloadable diagrams and visual aids that bring life to the paper.

Hatcher, T. (1997). An interview with Malcolm Knowles. Training & Development, 51, 37.

This article is actually an interview transcript in which Malcolm Knowles provides his expert views on self-directed learning. He describes characteristics of self-directed learners, discusses motivation and resistance in self-directed learning, and explains the overall process of self-directed learning.

Hatcher, T. (1997). The ins and outs of self-directed learning. Training & Development, 51, 34-39.

Though this article is geared more toward self-directed learning in relation to employee training, I believe it offers some relevant and useful data for educators as well. The article provides a “real-world” illustration of a self-directed learning process, which makes the concept easy to visualize. Further, this article lists several competencies necessary for facilitators of self-direction that I believe are relevant to self-directed learning in adult education.

Kerka, S. (1994). Myths and realities: self-directed learning. Brattleboro, VT: School for International Training’s Language and Culture Center. (ERIC Document No. ED 365 818). [On-line]. Available: http://www.worldlearning.org/sit/lcc/sd_learn.html

In this article, Kerka explores several misconceptions about adult self-directed learning including the beliefs that:

· Adults are naturally self-directed;

· Self-direction is an all-or-nothing concept; and

· Self-directed learning means learning in Isolation.

She explains the rationale behind each “myth” and then explores the reality behind each statement.

Kreber, C. (1998). The relationships between self-directed learning, critical thinking, and psychological type, and some implications for teaching in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 23, 71-86.

“The ability to think critically and the willingness and capacity to engage in self-directed learning are considered important prerequisites for lifelong education” (Kreber, 1998). Kreber presents a study that explored the relationship between undergraduate students’ willingness and perceived capacity to engage in self-directed learning, and ability to think critically, to their psychological type. This article also presented a clear look at the Self-directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), which has become increasingly important to self-directed learning research.

Long, H. (1994). Problems in assessing self-directed learning.” Adult Assessment Forum, IV, [On-line]. Available: www.intered.com/long.htm

Assessment is an important concept in education. According to Long, the assessment of self-directed learning has received only limited discussion. In this article, Long presents three major perspectives (Allen Tough, Malcolm Knowles, and Huey Long), which encompass the majority of all information available on assessment of self-directed learning.

Long, H. (1990). Psychological control in self-directed learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 9, 331-338.

This article provides a brief yet informative look at three of the major theories related to self-directed learning. Long discusses the major “conceptual aspects” (331) of self-directed learning including the sociological, pedagogical, and psychological concepts. After a brief examination of all three concepts, Long explains the importance, specifically of the psychological factors relating to self-directed learning. Long notes that “psychological control is both necessary and sufficient for an activity to be described as self-directed learning” (337).

Lowry, C. (1989). Supporting and facilitating self-directed learning. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 93.

This digest from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education provides a brief, but informative overview of self-directed learning. The article is a general overview of what is self-directed learning, who is engaged in it, and what are the proper roles for educators and institutions wanting to provide it.

MacLean, R. (1993). Self-directed learning: Consensus & conflict. Continuing higher education review: the journal of the National University Continuing Education Association, 57, 180-188.

Not all educators believe that self-directed learning is beneficial for adult learners. This article identifies some of the views of major educators knowledgeable in the field and points out some of the areas or reasons these educators disagree on the subject.

Mills, H. and DeJoy, J. (1988). Applications of educational technology in a self-directed learning program for adults. Lifelong learning: An omnibus of practice and research, 12, 22-25.

No abstract was available on this article. However, judging from the title, I believe it would provide some very valuable insights because technology and self-directed learning programs are often partnered. This article may provide some insights and strategies for combining educational technology with self-directed learning programs to make a more effective learning environment for adults.

Piskurich, G. M. (1994). Developing self-directed learning. Training & Development, 4, 30-36.

This article includes a step-by-step process for developing effective self-directed learning programs. Though it is geared more toward the work environment, many of the concepts expressed are applicable to the educational setting as well.

Schuttenberg, E. and Tracy, S. (1987). The role of the adult educator in fostering self-directed learning. Lifelong learning: An omnibus of practice and research, 10, 4-8.

No abstract was available for this article. Again, based on the title, I believe this article would provide important information about the role of the adult educator in self-directed learning programs. The educator in self-directed learning performs a much different role from educators in other types of learning. Self-directed learning requires educators to be facilitators as opposed to direct disseminators of knowledge. This facilitator plays a key role in the self-directed learning process, and I believe this article would shed some light on this role.

The Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale is, according to some experts in the field, the most widely used instrument for assessing self-direction in learning. It has been used in over 150 research projects, including more than 50 master's theses and doctoral dissertations. Research has shown significant correlation between scores on this test and various psychosocial/behavioral variables commonly thought to be associated with self-direction in learning. This scale could be an important tool for educators when assessing preferences and attitudes of adults toward learning. The following articles address the scale in detail.

Bonham, L. A. (1991). Guglielmino's Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale: What does it measure? Adult Education Quarterly, 41, 92-99.

Field, L. (1989). An investigation into the structure, validity, and reliability of Guglielmino's Self-Directed Learning Scale. Adult Education Quarterly, 39, 125-139.

Field, L. (1991). Guglielmino's Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale: Should it continue to be used? Adult Education Quarterly, 41, 100-103.

Wilcox, S. (1996). Fostering self-directed learning in the university setting. Studies in Higher Education, 21, 165-176.

This article addresses instructional issues in fostering self-directed learning in higher education classrooms. The article presents a study of faculty at a Canadian university in which the majority (87%) of study participants did not support self-directed learning. The article examines the possible reasons for this lack of support for self-directed learning and discusses the barriers to effective instructional support for self-directed learning in the modern university setting.

ON-LINE RESOURCES

The Internet is an excellent resource for finding information about self-directed learning. Some websites provide general information about self-direction while others describe specific self-directed learning programs or studies. The following websites provided extensive information about self-directed learning from several different perspectives. All are considered reputable sources and all are easily accessed and navigated.

Heimstra’s Articles, http://homepage.oanet.com/grayson/SDL/page2.htm

This website provides several links to very useful resources on self-directed learning written by Roger Heimstra, a professor at Syracuse University in New York and an expert in the field of self-directed learning. Links direct readers to several articles written by Heimstra on self-directed learning topics such as overcoming resistance to self-directed learning, incorporating self-directed learning into instructional design, taking responsibility for self-directed activities, and exploring changes in self-directed learning. Links also are available to The Self-Directed Learning Web Page and the 1999 International Self-Directed Learning Symposium in Scottsdale, Arizona.

An Introduction to Self-Directed Learning, http://www-distance.syr.edu/sdlhdbk.html

This page gives definitions, history, a synthesis of relevant research, an overview of controversies, emerging trends and issues, and areas of future research related to self-directed learning. This well-written and easy-to-follow page outlines some of the most pertinent self-directed learning information available.

Techniques, Tools and Resources for the Self-Directed Learner, http://www-distance.syr.edu/resource.html

Though this page is still under development, it details a variety of aids such as planning tools, individual study techniques, personal reflection tools, individual skill development, and group study techniques that are useful for self-directed learners.

Self-Directed Learning Webpage, http://www-distance.syr.edu/sdlhome.html

This site is primarily aimed at those interested in the advancement of the knowledge base associated with self-directed learning. Much of this information found on this site has stemmed from the International Self-Directed Learning Symposium. There are two main divisions of the site: one is an informational section where you will find a variety of pieces related to self-directed learning and the other is a section with several hot links to pages and resources of related value.

California State University, Long Beach, University College and Extension Services. http://www.ideas.uces.csulb.edu/guidebook/afresh.html

This is part of an on-line guidebook produced by California State University, Long Beach, University College and Extension Services entitled “A Guide for Distance Learners.” Several chapters are included in the guide on topics such as overcoming barriers facing distance learners, strategies for goal setting, stress reduction, time management, establishing good study skills, and assessing learning styles. One chapter is devoted to the concept of self-directed learning and tackles topics such as:

· What is Self-Directed Learning?

· Why Self-Directed Learning is Important

· What Traits Characterize the Self-Directed Learner?

· How Self-Directed Are You?

· How Can I Become More Self-Directed?

This chapter also offers a survey for assessing your skills as a self-directed learner and links to other helpful topics for distance education students.

The Potential of Self-Directed Learning (SDL), http://www.hi.is/~joner/eaps/em_sdlm.htm

This site discusses some of the perceived and some of the “real” problems with self-directed learning. For each of the “real” problems listed, this site provides advice on how to overcome these issues so that self-directed learning can be used to its full potential. Finally, this site provides an extensive book list for the topic of self-directed learning.

School for International Training, Language and Culture Center, Brattleboro, Vermont, http://www.worldlearning.org/sit/lcc/sd_learn.html

This site presents an article titled “Myths and Realities: Self-Directed Learning” written by Sandra Kerka (1994). Kerka discusses the "myths" that adults are naturally self-directed, that self-direction is an all or nothing concept, and that self-directed learning means learning in isolation. The site also provides additional links and resources related to teaching and learning.

Self-Directed Learning - A Study of Student Perceptions in an IT Open project, http://www.cce.auckland.ac.nz/herdsa98/HTML/TchLearn/Yee.HTM

This is a research project conducted by Koh-Kwok Wan Yee at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore. The purpose of this study was to determine student perceptions of their learning experience during a one term self-directed learning project. The study attempted to discover what motivated the students to learn as well as what skills were required to have a successful learning experience. The main findings showed that students were generally in favor of self-directed learning, but they felt the need to further develop some of the key skills required for self-direction. The study also presented reasons for failure in self-directed learning projects including failure to collaborate with other students, poor critical and creative thinking skills, and poor decision making and problem-solving skills.

Informal Education homepage, www.infed.org

This is a non-profit site designed by Dr Mark K. Smith of George Williams College in London. Dr. Smith specializes in the field of informal education and lifelong learning. This site offers extensive information on topics ranging from adult education ad lifelong learning to community development to theories and theorists to leadership and learning styles. There is a very informative section on self-directed learning with links to biographical information on key proponents of self-directed learning such as Malcolm Knowles, Allen Tough, and John Dewey. There is also a bibliography of additional recommended resources on self-directed learning.

International Self-Directed Learning Symposium homepage, http://www.sdlglobal.com

This page offers information on the current and previous symposiums for self-directed learning. Several links to other self-directed learning sites are also part of this site.

University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, http://fohweb.macarthur.uws.edu.au/ot/sdl.htm

Provides an introduction and overview to self-directed learning including information about SDL, creating learning diaries, preparing a learning contract, sample learning contract.

The Nature of Learning for the Self Directed Learner - The Self Directed Learner at http://www.rcc.ryerson.ca/learnontario/idnm/mod2/mod2-1/mod2-110.htm

The Principles and Models of Teaching and Learning Module #2 discusses adult learning principles as well as compares and assesses various learning styles to introduce learners to some teaching techniques that can be applied to both classroom and web-based instruction. This module is delivered as if learners are enrolled in an asynchronous program as self-directed learners. Centennial College has been the lead institution in developing this module.

Self-Directed Learning: The Ultimate Learning Style? By David Robotham

http://www.wlv.ac.uk/~bu1821/files/self-dir.htm

This article originally appeared in the Journal of European Industrial Training in 1995 and is now available via this website. David Robotham from the University of Wolverhampton in the United Kingdom advocates that it is not enough for trainers to identify student learning styles. Training should seek to move beyond the enhancement of performance within a narrow spectrum of activities to consider the development of foundations skills, such as self-directed learning. An able self-directed learner may still choose to use a particular learning style that is relatively narrow in nature, but they are consciously taking that decision, in view of their perception of the needs of a particular situation. As organizations operate in increasingly unstable environments that require greater levels of flexibility and adaptability from its employees, then self-direction would appear to be an increasingly desirable attribute. What is unclear is whether traditional trainers will be able to meet this need.

In addition to the above Internet sites, the following table lists several scholarly resources available on the World Wide Web for information on self-directed learning or other educational topics. Each of these pages can be searched by a keyword and full-text articles can be viewed free of charge.

Education Policy Analysis Archives (EPAA), http://olam.ed.asu.edu/epaa/

EPAA is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal published solely in electronic form at Arizona State University. Articles accepted for publication deal with education policy at any level of the education system in any nation. The site is searchable by keyword or abstracts can be browsed.

AERA Electronic Journals Links, http://aera-cr.ed.asu.edu/links.html

This site provides links to over 60 scholarly journals that actually distribute full text articles on education-related topics.

Harvard Educational Review (HER), http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~hepg/abouther.html

The Harvard Educational Review is a scholarly journal of opinion and research in education. Its mission is to provide an interdisciplinary forum for discussion and debate about education's most vital issues. Since its founding in 1930, the Review has become one of the most prestigious journals in education. Full-text articles are not always available on-line free of charge, but instructions for ordering a copy of the review are posted.

Philosophy of Education Society Publication (PES), http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/pes/

This is an annual collection (since 1992) of papers about current educational issues as well as emerging perspectives that are shaping the field for the future. Papers published in this collection usually go through a series of rigorous reviews by anonymous reviewers of the editorial committee. The site can be searched by keyword, author, or by year of publication.

New Horizons in Adult Education, http://ejournals.cic.net/journals/n/newhorizons/

New Horizons in Adult Education, founded in 1987, is a refereed electronic journal, which provides faculty, graduate students, researchers, and practitioners with a means for publishing their current thinking and research within adult education and related fields. New Horizons publishes research, thought pieces, book reviews, point-counter-point articles, conceptual analysis, case studies, interactive articles, and invitational columns. The site is not searchable by keyword, but individual issues can be browsed on-line.

OTHER SOURCES

Dr. Huey B. Long, University of Oklahoma Norman, OK 73019, Telephone Number: (405) 325-1522, Fax Number: (405) 325-2403, E-mail Address: hlong@ou.edu

Long has published approximately 700 articles, books, chapters and monographs on a variety of topics including aging, adult education, conservation and government. He has taught several courses on self-directed learning and is considered an expert on the topic. He is very approachable and willing to share his expertise about self-directed learning. Some examples of his work on self-directed learning are:

Long, H. B. (1990). Changing concepts of self-direction in learning. In H. B. Long & Associates Advances in research and practice in self-directed learning, 1-8. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Confessore, G. J., & Long, H. B. (1992). Abstracts of literature in self-directed learning 1983-1991. Norman, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1987). Self-directed learning: Application & theory. Athens, GA: Adult Education Department, University of Georgia.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1989). Self-directed learning: Emerging theory & practice. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1990). Advances in research and practice in self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1991). Self-directed learning: Consensus & conflict. Norman, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1992). Self-directed learning: Application and research. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1993). Emerging perspectives of self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Associates. (1994). New ideas about self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Confessore, G. J. (1992). Abstracts of literature in self-directed learning: 1966-1982. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

Long, H. B., & Redding, T. R. (1991). Self-directed learning dissertation abstracts: 1966-1991. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education.

SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING: A PATHFINDER OF RESOURCES

Statement of Scope

The Social Science Information Gateway search engine produced no results for self-directed learning, but suggested the following alternative search terms which produced several relevant results: