Asking Questions

THIS IS ALSO AVAILABLE AS A RTF FILE

The skill area of asking questions refers to the instructor 's ability to use different types of questions for a variety of instructional purposes. Many instructors use questions as part of their teaching methods; some even vary the type and functions of their questions to suit their instructional purposes. However, more often it's the case that instructors consistently ask one or a few types of questions frequently without any clear sense of purpose or direction. The result is that questions are not typically the powerful aid to learning that they might be. In contrast, instructors who are aware of their objectives, of the types of questions they might ask, and of the functions which questions may serve, are likely to make better decisions about how to conduct a lesson and use questions strategies more effectively.

An instructor may use questions for any number of instructional purposes: to motivate students, to establish focus, to check on comprehension, to increase student participation, to vary the cognitive level at which subject matter is considered, etc. Obviously, the clarity of the questions and the emotional tone used by the instructor when he or she asks them contribute to their effectiveness as a learning aid for students. In addition, an instructor skilled in asking questions is able to use various types of questions and to make them serve different functions.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS:
Recently, considerable attention has been given to the classification of the types of questions used in classrooms. These efforts have resulted in several classification schemes: convergent/divergent questions; higher order/lower order questions; open/closed questions; taxonomies of questions suggested by Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, etc. These classifications are based largely on the cognitive functions of questions. That is different types of questions "lead" students to process information at increasingly complex intellectual levels.

Since the classification systems based upon Bloom’s taxonomy of objectives allow the most discrimination in looking at the types of questions, a brief description of such a system may suggest strategies for constructing and using questions directed at achieving various cognitive objectives. The classification outlined below is described in greater detail in classroom questions (Sanders, 1966). Briefly, however, Sanders classifies questions into the following categories:

1. Memory:

Memory questions require the student to recognize or recall information. The greatest problem in this category is not how to construct good memory question, but rather how to determine the knowledge that is to be remembered. The proper boundaries of this knowledge are subject to disagreement, but generally memory questions should be used to help students focus on that knowledge which will provide a foundation for the higher cognitive levels.
Examples:
The taxonomy of questions deal mainly with which of the following:
a) cognitive learning
b) affective learning
c) physical learning
d) none of the above
Name the category of questions which requires the least complex intellectual operations.

2. Translation:

Translation questions ask students to change information into a different symbolic form or language. An idea can be expressed in several different forms of communication: pictures, graphs, charts, maps, models, statements in technical language, statements in layperson’s language, etc. Translation thinking is quite literal and does not require students to discover intricate relationships, implications, or subtle meanings. Students identify one part of the original communication at a time and translate it into the new form.
Examples:
Suppose that an observer classified each of the questions asked by an instructor during a class period and found the following frequencies:
Memory – 10 Interpretation – 2 Analysis – 0 Evaluation – 1
Translation – 6 Application – 1 Synthesis – 0
Construct a histogram to present this information to the instructor (assume the person answering the question knows how to construct a histogram). Define each of the taxonomy categories in your own words.

3. Interpretation:

Interpretation questions ask students to discover a relationship among facts, generalizations, definitions, values, and skills. This category is more difficult to define because there are many kinds of thinking involved in finding relationships. In fact, all higher levels of the taxonomy involve more complex applications of the kinds of thinking included in this category. Nevertheless, the category remains distinct because of the characteristics of the questions included.
The most distinguishing characteristic is that interpretation questions are explicit about what the student should do. The generalizations, criteria for comparison, statistical information, etc. to be used in discovering the relationships are identified in the questions. The student does not need to make decision about the bases for establishing the relationships.
Examples:
Assuming that the type of questions asked in classrooms direct the kinds of thinking which students do, at what cognitive level would you guess most students were operating in the classroom for which you drew the histogram?
Classify each question which you ask during a lesson according to the Taxonomy of Questions.

4. Application:

Application questions ask students to solve problems that require identification of the issues and the selection and use of appropriate generalizations and skills. Application questions are designed to give students practice in transfer of training and independent use of knowledge and skills.
The distinction between Application and Interpretation centers partly on the instructional context in which the question is asked. The first example included under the Interpretation category above not only specifies what the issue is (Asking Questions) but also is asked in context in which you know which generalizations and skills you should use. At some later time, we might present you with the following Application problem: "Look at a videotape of a university class and try to determine the cognitive level at which students are operating." Although the tape might be selected because it illustrated questioning techniques, there’s nothing in the question which indicates that asking questions is the issue. Moreover, if the problem were presented after you had focused on several other teaching skills, you would not be led to apply the generalizations and skills related to asking questions simply because the context was one in which you were dealing with questioning behaviors. In other words, you would be expected to perceive that the classification of questions was called for implicitly by the question.
Example:
How would you design a lesson play which would get students to think about the day’s subject matter in increasingly complex ways?

5. Analysis:

Analysis questions require solutions to problems in light of conscious knowledge of the parts and process of reasoning. The distinctions between Analysis questions and Application and Interpretation questions are easily blurred since the latter two cannot be answered without some elementary knowledge of logical reasoning. However, Interpretation and Application questions require "commonsense reasoning," whereas Analysis questions require the student to be conscious of the intellectual process he or she is performing and to be able to explain the rules for reaching a valid and true conclusion.
Example:
The Clinic to Improve University Teaching believes asking questions is an important teaching skill. Analyze the reasoning behind this conclusion.

6. Synthesis:

Synthesis questions encourage students to engage in imaginative, original thinking. Unlike the earlier categories of questions in which the course of thought starts with a problem and converges to one correct answer, Synthesis questions begin with a problem that offers a variety of possibilities radiating out to many satisfactory answers. Questions which ask students to create an original story, poem, etc. are not the only Synthesis questions; students may also be required to engage in imaginative, original thought if asked to formulate hypothesis, plan courses of action, design experiments, etc.
Examples:
Design your own system for classifying classroom questions.
Design a training program for teaching assistants in your department.

7. Evaluation: Evaluation questions ask a student to make a judgment according to some standards he or she designates. They require students to perform two steps: 1) to set up appropriate standards or values, and 2) to determine how closely the idea or object meets these standards or values. Evaluation questions require that students have an understanding of the differences between values, facts, and opinions.
Examples:
Which category of questions do you think is most important?
Should a training program for teaching assistants include training in asking questions?

While the overall goals of education would seem to require questions at every cognitive level, research on classroom questions reveals that approximately 80 percent of the questions asked in classrooms fall in the Memory and Translation categories. Knowledge of the taxonomy of questions may aid instructors in planning for and constructing questions which will encourage students to think and explore ideas at various cognitive levels.

Instructors or observers who attempt to classify questions actually used in classrooms may find it difficult to assign a particular question to one category, since the level of thinking required by a given question often depends upon the context in which it is asked and the responses which it elicits. For these reasons, the taxonomy should not be viewed as a rigid classification scheme into which each and every question must be categorized. It is probably most useful as a guide for instructors to use in planning for a varied intellectual classroom experience and as a rough tool for checking the intellectual level at which most of the questions asked in a given class are directed.

The categories of questions outlined above are classification schemes based largely upon the level of thinking required to answer the question. Questions at any cognitive level may also be grouped according to the functions they serve. Any one of the questions given as examples of cognitive types may be phrased to serve an instructional function as well.

FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS:

1. Centering Questions: Centering questions strive to focus students’ thinking on a particular topic or aspect of a topic. If such questions are carefully chosen, they may also serve to arouse students’ curiosity and interest and motivate them to engage in discussion or thoughtful exploration. Such questions may be constructed so that they direct students’ thinking to any cognitive level or expand their thinking to include increasingly more complex levels. The distinguishing characteristic is that they attempt to focus students’ attention.
Example:
In a group discussion on the Taxonomy of Questions one might begin by asking: "Do you think it would be valuable to have students learn some or all of the categories of thinking?"
(Function: centering; Type: evaluation)

2. Probing Questions: Probing questions seek to get students to go beyond their initial contributions or responses to a question. The instructor’s cue is the student’s response, so probing questions usually occur after a student has responded to an earlier question. Probing questions typically serve two functions: 1) the extension of thought at the same level, and 2) the shifting of thought to another level.
Example:
Suppose a participant responded to the above question by saying, "No, I think it would be a waste of time." One might ask: "What values or standards do you have in mind when you say it would be a waste of time?"
(Function: probing; Type: evaluation)

3. Redirecting Questions: Redirecting questions attempt to get many students engaged in a discussion or involved in a learning activity. Like probing questions, redirecting questions usually occur after a student has responded to an earlier question or contributed an idea. An instructor may then use a variety of questions to get other students to respond to the initial question or to comment on other students’ responses.
Example:
After the participant above has defined his criteria for evaluation, one might ask: "What do the rest of you think about the criteria just listed?" or, "Does anyone have a different opinion about whether or not it would be valuable for students to learn the categories of questions?"
(Function: redirecting; Type: evaluation)

4. Processing Questions: Processing questions serve to maintain a classroom atmosphere conducive to productive activity and to heighten students’ awareness of the processes in which they are engaging. They focus less on the content of the lesson than on the process of investigation and on students’ conduct during, and feeling about, that process.
Example:
Suppose the discussion above progressed and members began challenging each others’ ideas about what things are most important for students to learn. Then suppose their challenges became attacks on each others’ courses – each accusing the others of spending time inappropriately. At some point, a discussion leader might ask: "Are we getting off the track by discussing each others’ courses, or is this discussion moving us toward a more practical consideration of the question?"
(Function: processing; Type: evaluation or analysis)

SUMMARY:
The analysis of functions and types of questions results in questioning patterns which may or may not help lead students in fruitful directions. It is our belief that instructors who are aware of the question types and functions can plan and teach lessons which are more likely to lead students in productive directions. We do not advocate that instructors prepare rigid lesson plans which would stifle spontaneity and creativity in their classes. However, an instructor can practice specific questioning strategies and develop a repertoire of questioning behaviors which he or she may then utilize in the classroom as occasions for their use arise.