Constructing Grading Systems

Self-Assessment Question:

Do you know how to construct a grading system that is fair to students and properly reflects student achievement?

Quick Take:

The first thing a teacher needs to understand about grading, is that "grading" is not the same thing as "testing." Tests are procedures for determining what a student knows or can do in relation to a small or large part of the course. Tests yield scores that are then used, usually in combination with other information, to calculate a grade. Grades themselves are symbols used to communicate something about the educational achievement of a student to the student him/herself, but also to many others: parents, advisors, future teachers, prospective employers, graduate schools, etc. Therefore grades need to be carefully constructed so they communicate clearly and accurately.

The first decision a teacher must make about grading is what kind of grading system to use. Will the educational achievement of a given student be compared to an established standard (criterion-referenced grading) or with the achievement of other students in this class (normative-referenced grading)? Most educators recommend the first approach. The reason is that it allows all students the chance to achieve a high grade if they work hard and master the material, and because it avoids pitting students against each other, thereby allowing and encouraging students to help each other.

The next decision is about what components to include in the calculation of the final grade and how these components will be weighted. Should the final course grade only include major tests (e.g., the proverbial two mid-terms and a final), or also include such things as: homework, essay assignments, group projects, keeping a journal, attendance, class participation, etc.? Most authors recommend that the course grade should reflect all activities--but only those activities--that reflect actual student learning. In general, this means activities such as homework, essay assignments, and group projects are good components to include. In most cases, components like attendance, class participation are not good components, unless a particular course or curriculum has reason to put special significance on these activities, e.g., the neatness of formal written reports in a pre-professional engineering program.

Once the teacher has identified the components of the grade, each component must be given a "weight" to be used in calculating the final grade. In most cases, professors choose to give a different weight to different components, depending on their relative significance. For example, homework may count 10%, group projects 20%, two midterms 20% each, and the final exam 30%.

References:

1. Effective Grading: A Tool for Learning and Assessment by Barbara E. Walvoord and Virginia Anderson. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998. Offers an excellent discussion of key issues and recommendations on how to construct a grading system that not only is fair, but also enhances learning and helps motivate students. One key idea is the importance of creating clear and appropriate standards for grading (Chap. 5).

2. "The ABC's of Assigning Grades," Chapter 8 in Teaching Tips by Wilbert J. McKeachie, 9th edition. Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1994. Pp. 101-114. A succinct but thoughtful review of different grading systems and what grades should mean. Also has advice on policy issues, e.g., what to do when a student requests a grade change.

3. "Grading Practices" and "Calculating and Assigning Grades," Chapters 32 and 33 respectively, in Tools for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. Pp. 282-287 and 288-298. An excellent summary of do's and don'ts regarding grading, in a form that allows a reader to find ideas on specific questions.

4. "Grading Student Achievement" by Delivee Wright, Chapter 34 in Handbook on College Teaching, edited by Keith W. Prichard and R. McLaren Sawyer. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994. Presents a summary of the meaning of grading systems, a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of several kinds of grading systems, and several well-stated recommendations.